CLINICAL OUTCOMES OF VIRAL RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS AMONG IMMUNOSUPPRESSED INDIVIDUALS
Main Article Content
Keywords
Viral, Respiratory, Infection, Immunocompromised, Molecular Diagnostics, Mass Spectrometry.
Abstract
Viral respiration infections (VRIs) pose an enormous danger to immunocompromised sufferers, which includes cancer sufferers and recipients of hematopoietic stem cellular transplants, leading to high morbidity and mortality globally. These infections, because of pathogens consisting of influenza viruses, coronaviruses, respiration syncytial virus (RSV), and rhinoviruses, variety from slight top respiration tract infections to excessive lower breathing tract headaches. Immunocompromised people, along with the aged and younger children, are mainly at risk of severe results. The financial and clinical burden of VRIs is sizeable, exacerbated through demanding situations in diagnosis and management. Traditional diagnostic methods, including viral culture and serology, offer specificity but are restricted by means of gradual turnaround times and decrease sensitivity. Advances in molecular technique, including next-generation sequencing (NGS), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and real time PCR, have revolutionized the detection of respiration viruses by providing fast, accurate and high- through put consequences. These technology enable early prognosis, essential for timely intervention and outbreak manipulate. However, demanding situations including price, technical complexity, and the need for nonstop updates to stumble on viral mutations persist. This review highlights the importance of integrating speedy screening checks with confirmatory molecular assays to stability pace and accuracy, mainly in aid - constrained settings. Emerging point of care technologies and the ability of synthetic intelligence in diagnostics ate also discussed. Strengthening global surveillance networks and improving public health guidelines are vital to mitigating the effects of VRIs. Future efforts ought to consciousness on growing low cost diagnostics, vast- spectrum antivirals, and powerful vaccines to guard vulnerable populations and decrease the world wide burden of respiratory viral infections.
References
1. Ali, M., et al. (2015). "Throat and nasal swabs for molecular detection of respiratory viruses in acute pharyngitis." Virology journal 12: 1-4.
2. Anderson, T. P., et al. (2013). "Comparison of four multiplex PCR assays for the detection of viral pathogens in respiratory specimens." Journal of virological methods 191(2): 118-121.
3. Avarre, J.-C. (2017). Molecular tracing of aquatic viruses: where epidemiology needs to meet genomics, Frontiers Media SA. 8: 1498.
4. Babady, N. E., et al. (2018). "Multicenter evaluation of the ePlex respiratory pathogen panel for the detection of viral and bacterial respiratory tract pathogens in nasopharyngeal swabs." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 56(2): 10.1128/jcm. 01658-01617.
5. Badham, M. D. and J. S. Rossman (2016). "Filamentous influenza viruses." Current clinical microbiology reports 3(3): 155-161.
6. Barzon, L., et al. (2011). "Applications of next-generation sequencing technologies to diagnostic virology." International journal of molecular sciences 12(11): 7861-7884.
7. Barzon, L., et al. (2011). "Human papillomavirus genotyping by 454 next generation sequencing technology." Journal of clinical virology 52(2): 93-97.
8. Bell, J., et al. (2014). "Multicenter clinical evaluation of the novel Alere™ i Influenza A&B isothermal nucleic acid amplification test." Journal of clinical virology 61(1): 81-86.
9. Bell, J. J. and R. Selvarangan (2014). "Evaluation of the Alere I influenza A&B nucleic acid amplification test by use of respiratory specimens collected in viral transport medium." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(11): 3992-3995.
10. Brankston, G., et al. (2007). "Transmission of influenza A in human beings." The Lancet infectious diseases 7(4): 257-265.
11. Briese, T., et al. (2015). "Virome capture sequencing enables sensitive viral diagnosis and comprehensive virome analysis." MBio 6(5): 10.1128/mbio. 01491-01415.
12. Campbell, A. P., et al. (2010). "Respiratory virus pneumonia after hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT): associations between viral load in bronchoalveolar lavage samples, viral RNA detection in serum samples, and clinical outcomes of HCT." The Journal of infectious diseases 201(9): 1404-1413.
13. Campbell, A. P., et al. (2015). "Clinical outcomes associated with respiratory virus detection before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant." Clinical infectious diseases 61(2): 192-202.
14. Chan, C., et al. (2009). "Examination of seroprevalence of coronavirus HKU1 infection with S protein-based ELISA and neutralization assay against viral spike pseudotyped virus." Journal of clinical virology 45(1): 54-60.
15. Chan, J. F., et al. (2015). "Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: another zoonotic betacoronavirus causing SARS-like disease." Clinical microbiology reviews 28(2): 465-522.
16. Chemaly, R. F., et al. (2014). "Management of respiratory viral infections in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients and patients with hematologic malignancies." Clinical infectious diseases 59(suppl_5): S344-S351.
17. Chen, K.-F., et al. (2011). "Rapid identification viruses from nasal pharyngeal aspirates in acute viral respiratory infections by RT-PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry." Journal of virological methods 173(1): 60-66.
18. Chou, T.-C., et al. (2011). "Rapid and specific influenza virus detection by functionalized magnetic nanoparticles and mass spectrometry." Journal of nanobiotechnology 9: 1-13.
19. Emonet, S., et al. (2010). "Application and use of various mass spectrometry methods in clinical microbiology." Clinical Microbiology and Infection 16(11): 1604-1613.
20. Faden, H. (2010). "Comparison of midturbinate flocked-swab specimens with nasopharyngeal aspirates for detection of respiratory viruses in children by the direct fluorescent antibody technique." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 48(10): 3742-3743.
21. Fisher, B. T., et al. (2018). "A multicenter consortium to define the epidemiology and outcomes of inpatient respiratory viral infections in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients." Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society 7(4): 275-282.
22. Flint, S. J., et al. (2020). Principles of virology, Volume 2: pathogenesis and control, John Wiley & Sons.
23. Frazee, B. W., et al. (2018). "Accuracy and discomfort of different types of intranasal specimen collection methods for molecular influenza testing in emergency department patients." Annals of emergency medicine 71(4): 509-517. e501.
24. García‐Arroyo, L., et al. (2016). "Benefits and drawbacks of molecular techniques for diagnosis of viral respiratory infections. Experience with two multiplex PCR assays." Journal of medical virology 88(1): 45-50.
25. Giacoppo, D., et al. (2015). "Treatment strategies for coronary in-stent restenosis: systematic review and hierarchical Bayesian network meta-analysis of 24 randomised trials and 4880 patients." Bmj 351.
26. Goyal, S., et al. (2017). "The acceptability and validity of self‐collected nasal swabs for detection of influenza virus infection among older adults in Thailand." Influenza and other respiratory viruses 11(5): 412-417.
27. Greenberg, S. B. (2011). Update on rhinovirus and coronavirus infections. Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine, © Thieme Medical Publishers.
28. Gupta, E., et al. (2015). "Correlation between two chemiluminescence based assays for quantification of hepatitis B surface antigen in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection." Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology 33(1): 96-100.
29. Hall, C. B., et al. (2013). Clinical and epidemiologic features of respiratory syncytial virus. Challenges and opportunities for respiratory syncytial virus vaccines, Springer: 39-57.
30. Hause, B. M., et al. (2014). "Characterization of a novel influenza virus in cattle and Swine: proposal for a new genus in the Orthomyxoviridae family." MBio 5(2): 10.1128/mbio. 00031-00014.
31. Hayden, R. T., et al. (2020). Diagnostic microbiology of the immunocompromised host, John Wiley & Sons.
32. Hazelton, B., et al. (2015). "Detection of influenza A and B with the Alere™ i influenza A & B: a novel isothermal nucleic acid amplification assay." Influenza and other respiratory viruses 9(3): 151-154.
33. He, Q., et al. (2014). "Detection of HIV-1 p24 antigen using streptavidin–biotin and gold nanoparticles based immunoassay by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry." Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 29(8): 1477-1482.
34. He, R., et al. (2025). "Integrating multiplex PCR in fever clinics for acute respiratory pathogen-specific diagnosis." Clinica Chimica Acta 572: 120245.
35. Hematian, A., et al. (2016). "Traditional and modern cell culture in virus diagnosis." Osong public health and research perspectives 7(2): 77-82.
36. Holter, J. C., et al. (2015). "Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia and diagnostic yields of microbiological methods: a 3-year prospective study in Norway." BMC infectious diseases 15: 1-11.
37. Irving, S. A., et al. (2012). "Comparison of nasal and nasopharyngeal swabs for influenza detection in adults." Clinical medicine & research 10(4): 215-218.
38. Isakov, O., et al. (2015). "Deep sequencing analysis of viral infection and evolution allows rapid and detailed characterization of viral mutant spectrum." Bioinformatics 31(13): 2141-2150.
39. Jacobs, S. E., et al. (2013). "Human rhinoviruses." Clinical microbiology reviews 26(1): 135-162.
40. James, S. L., et al. (2020). "The global burden of falls: global, regional and national estimates of morbidity and mortality from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017." Injury prevention 26(Suppl 2): i3-i11.
41. Jin, C., et al. (2014). "Comparison of a new gold immunochromatographic assay for the rapid diagnosis of the novel influenza A (H7N9) virus with cell culture and a real‐time reverse‐transcription PCR assay." BioMed Research International 2014(1): 425051.
42. Kalthoff, D., et al. (2013). "High resolution melting analysis: rapid and precise characterisation of recombinant influenza A genomes." Virology journal 10: 1-5.
43. Kennedy, J. L., et al. (2012). "Pathogenesis of rhinovirus infection." Current opinion in virology 2(3): 287-293.
44. Killingley, B. and J. Nguyen‐Van‐Tam (2013). "Routes of influenza transmission." Influenza and other respiratory viruses 7: 42-51.
45. Kim, Y.-J., et al. (2014). "Respiratory syncytial virus in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: factors determining progression to lower respiratory tract disease." The Journal of infectious diseases 209(8): 1195-1204.
46. Kurai, D., et al. (2013). "Virus-induced exacerbations in asthma and COPD." Frontiers in microbiology 4: 293.
47. Lafond, K. E., et al. (2016). "Global role and burden of influenza in pediatric respiratory hospitalizations, 1982–2012: a systematic analysis." PLoS medicine 13(3): e1001977.
48. Larios, O. E., et al. (2011). "Self-collected mid-turbinate swabs for the detection of respiratory viruses in adults with acute respiratory illnesses." PLoS One 6(6): e21335.
49. Leung, N. H. (2021). "Transmissibility and transmission of respiratory viruses." Nature Reviews Microbiology 19(8): 528-545.
50. Leung, P., et al. (2014). "A bioinformatics pipeline for the analyses of viral escape dynamics and host immune responses during an infection." BioMed Research International 2014(1): 264519.
51. Lévêque, N., et al. (2014). "Virological diagnosis of central nervous system infections by use of PCR coupled with mass spectrometry analysis of cerebrospinal fluid samples." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(1): 212-217.
52. Liu, D. X., et al. (2021). "Human coronavirus-229E,-OC43,-NL63, and-HKU1 (Coronaviridae)." Encyclopedia of virology: 428.
53. Liu, J., et al. (2014). "Development of reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid detection of novel avian influenza A (H7N9) virus." BMC microbiology 14: 1-6.
54. Loria, C., et al. (2015). "Human rhinovirus C infections in pediatric hematology and oncology patients." Pediatric transplantation 19(1): 94-100.
55. Lowe, C. F., et al. (2016). "Implementation of next-generation sequencing for hepatitis B virus resistance testing and genotyping in a clinical microbiology laboratory." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 54(1): 127-133.
56. Mahony, J. B. (2010). "Nucleic acid amplification-based diagnosis of respiratory virus infections." Expert review of anti-infective therapy 8(11): 1273-1292.
57. McCarty, T., et al. (2023). "Test Performance and Potential Clinical Utility of the GenMark Dx ePlex Blood Culture Identification Gram-Negative Panel." Microbiology Spectrum 11(1): e04092-04022.
58. Meissner, H. C. (2016). "Viral bronchiolitis in children." New England Journal of Medicine 374(1): 62-72.
59. Mercier-Delarue, S., et al. (2014). "Higher specificity of nucleic acid sequence-based amplification isothermal technology than of real-time PCR for quantification of HIV-1 RNA on dried blood spots." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(1): 52-56.
60. Milano, F., et al. (2010). "Human rhinovirus and coronavirus detection among allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation recipients." Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology 115(10): 2088-2094.
61. Mori, Y., et al. (2013). "Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): recent progress in research and development." Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy 19(3): 404-411.
62. Nakauchi, M., et al. (2014). "Development of a reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the rapid diagnosis of avian influenza A (H7N9) virus infection." Journal of virological methods 204: 101-104.
63. Ngaosuwankul, N., et al. (2010). "Influenza A viral loads in respiratory samples collected from patients infected with pandemic H1N1, seasonal H1N1 and H3N2 viruses." Virology journal 7: 1-7.
64. Nie, S., et al. (2014). "Evaluation of Alere i Influenza A&B for rapid detection of influenza viruses A and B." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(9): 3339-3344.
65. Ortiz de la Tabla, V., et al. (2010). "Comparison of combined nose-throat swabs with nasopharyngeal aspirates for detection of pandemic influenza A/H1N1 2009 virus by real-time reverse transcriptase PCR." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 48(10): 3492-3495.
66. Paules, C. I., et al. (2017). "The pathway to a universal influenza vaccine." Immunity 47(4): 599-603.
67. Pavia, A. T. (2011). "Viral infections of the lower respiratory tract: old viruses, new viruses, and the role of diagnosis." Clinical infectious diseases 52(suppl_4): S284-S289.
68. Peeling, R. W., et al. (2022). "Diagnostics for COVID-19: moving from pandemic response to control." The lancet 399(10326): 757-768.
69. Peteranderl, C., et al. (2016). Human influenza virus infections. Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine, Thieme Medical Publishers.
70. Pillet, S., et al. (2013). "Comparative evaluation of six commercialized multiplex PCR kits for the diagnosis of respiratory infections." PLoS One 8(8): e72174.
71. Pyrc, K., et al. (2011). "Development of loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for detection of human coronavirus-NL63." Journal of virological methods 175(1): 133-136.
72. Quan, P.-L., et al. (2008). "Rapid sequence-based diagnosis of viral infection." Antiviral research 79(1): 1-5.
73. Rothberg, J. M., et al. (2011). "An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing." Nature 475(7356): 348-352.
74. Sauer, S. and M. Kliem (2010). "Mass spectrometry tools for the classification and identification of bacteria." Nature Reviews Microbiology 8(1): 74-82.
75. Schibler, M., et al. (2012). "Critical analysis of rhinovirus RNA load quantification by real-time reverse transcription-PCR." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 50(9): 2868-2872.
76. Shi, K., et al. (2024). "Development of a triplex crystal digital RT-PCR for the detection of PHEV, PRV, and CSFV." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 11: 1462880.
77. Shirato, K., et al. (2018). "Development of fluorescent reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) using quenching probes for the detection of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus." Journal of virological methods 258: 41-48.
78. Shirato, K., et al. (2014). "Detection of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus using reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP)." Virology journal 11: 1-11.
79. Shors, T. (2009). Virus: estudio molecular con orientación clínica, Ed. Médica Panamericana.
80. Song, Q., et al. (2014). "Identification of human metapneumovirus genotypes A and B from clinical specimens by reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification." Journal of virological methods 196: 133-138.
81. Szewczuk, E., et al. (2010). "Rapid semi-automated quantitative multiplex tandem PCR (MT-PCR) assays for the differential diagnosis of influenza-like illness." BMC infectious diseases 10: 1-12.
82. Tang, Y.-W., et al. (2020). "Laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19: current issues and challenges." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 58(6): 10.1128/jcm. 00512-00520.
83. Tong, S. Y., et al. (2011). "Rapid detection of the H275Y oseltamivir resistance mutation in influenza A/H1N1 2009 by single base pair RT-PCR and high-resolution melting." PLoS One 6(6): e21446.
84. Tregoning, J. S. and J. r. Schwarze (2010). "Respiratory viral infections in infants: causes, clinical symptoms, virology, and immunology." Clinical microbiology reviews 23(1): 74-98.
85. van Doorn, H. R. and H. Yu (2020). Viral respiratory infections. Hunter's tropical medicine and emerging infectious diseases, Elsevier: 284-288.
86. Varillas, D., et al. (2011). "A new method for detection of pandemic influenza virus using High Resolution Melting analysis of the neuraminidase gene." Journal of virological methods 171(1): 284-286.
87. Vliora, C., et al. (2019). "A prospective study on the epidemiology and clinical significance of viral respiratory infections among pediatric oncology patients." Pediatric Hematology and Oncology 36(3): 173-186.
88. Yea, C., et al. (2011). "Early detection of influenza A (H5) viruses with affinity for the human sialic acid receptor by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry based mutation detection." Journal of virological methods 172(1-2): 72-77.
89. Zhang, Q., et al. (2017). "Comparative genomic analysis of two emergent human adenovirus type 14 respiratory pathogen isolates in China reveals similar yet divergent genomes." Emerging microbes & infections 6(1): 1-12.
90. Zhang, S., et al. (2020). "Cost of respiratory syncytial virus-associated acute lower respiratory infection management in young children at the regional and global level: a systematic review and meta-analysis." The Journal of infectious diseases 222(Supplement_7): S680-S687.
91. Zhao, L., et al. (2019). "A highly sensitive 1-tube nested real-time RT-PCR assay using LNA-modified primers for detection of respiratory syncytial virus." Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 93(2): 101-106.
2. Anderson, T. P., et al. (2013). "Comparison of four multiplex PCR assays for the detection of viral pathogens in respiratory specimens." Journal of virological methods 191(2): 118-121.
3. Avarre, J.-C. (2017). Molecular tracing of aquatic viruses: where epidemiology needs to meet genomics, Frontiers Media SA. 8: 1498.
4. Babady, N. E., et al. (2018). "Multicenter evaluation of the ePlex respiratory pathogen panel for the detection of viral and bacterial respiratory tract pathogens in nasopharyngeal swabs." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 56(2): 10.1128/jcm. 01658-01617.
5. Badham, M. D. and J. S. Rossman (2016). "Filamentous influenza viruses." Current clinical microbiology reports 3(3): 155-161.
6. Barzon, L., et al. (2011). "Applications of next-generation sequencing technologies to diagnostic virology." International journal of molecular sciences 12(11): 7861-7884.
7. Barzon, L., et al. (2011). "Human papillomavirus genotyping by 454 next generation sequencing technology." Journal of clinical virology 52(2): 93-97.
8. Bell, J., et al. (2014). "Multicenter clinical evaluation of the novel Alere™ i Influenza A&B isothermal nucleic acid amplification test." Journal of clinical virology 61(1): 81-86.
9. Bell, J. J. and R. Selvarangan (2014). "Evaluation of the Alere I influenza A&B nucleic acid amplification test by use of respiratory specimens collected in viral transport medium." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(11): 3992-3995.
10. Brankston, G., et al. (2007). "Transmission of influenza A in human beings." The Lancet infectious diseases 7(4): 257-265.
11. Briese, T., et al. (2015). "Virome capture sequencing enables sensitive viral diagnosis and comprehensive virome analysis." MBio 6(5): 10.1128/mbio. 01491-01415.
12. Campbell, A. P., et al. (2010). "Respiratory virus pneumonia after hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT): associations between viral load in bronchoalveolar lavage samples, viral RNA detection in serum samples, and clinical outcomes of HCT." The Journal of infectious diseases 201(9): 1404-1413.
13. Campbell, A. P., et al. (2015). "Clinical outcomes associated with respiratory virus detection before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant." Clinical infectious diseases 61(2): 192-202.
14. Chan, C., et al. (2009). "Examination of seroprevalence of coronavirus HKU1 infection with S protein-based ELISA and neutralization assay against viral spike pseudotyped virus." Journal of clinical virology 45(1): 54-60.
15. Chan, J. F., et al. (2015). "Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: another zoonotic betacoronavirus causing SARS-like disease." Clinical microbiology reviews 28(2): 465-522.
16. Chemaly, R. F., et al. (2014). "Management of respiratory viral infections in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients and patients with hematologic malignancies." Clinical infectious diseases 59(suppl_5): S344-S351.
17. Chen, K.-F., et al. (2011). "Rapid identification viruses from nasal pharyngeal aspirates in acute viral respiratory infections by RT-PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry." Journal of virological methods 173(1): 60-66.
18. Chou, T.-C., et al. (2011). "Rapid and specific influenza virus detection by functionalized magnetic nanoparticles and mass spectrometry." Journal of nanobiotechnology 9: 1-13.
19. Emonet, S., et al. (2010). "Application and use of various mass spectrometry methods in clinical microbiology." Clinical Microbiology and Infection 16(11): 1604-1613.
20. Faden, H. (2010). "Comparison of midturbinate flocked-swab specimens with nasopharyngeal aspirates for detection of respiratory viruses in children by the direct fluorescent antibody technique." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 48(10): 3742-3743.
21. Fisher, B. T., et al. (2018). "A multicenter consortium to define the epidemiology and outcomes of inpatient respiratory viral infections in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients." Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society 7(4): 275-282.
22. Flint, S. J., et al. (2020). Principles of virology, Volume 2: pathogenesis and control, John Wiley & Sons.
23. Frazee, B. W., et al. (2018). "Accuracy and discomfort of different types of intranasal specimen collection methods for molecular influenza testing in emergency department patients." Annals of emergency medicine 71(4): 509-517. e501.
24. García‐Arroyo, L., et al. (2016). "Benefits and drawbacks of molecular techniques for diagnosis of viral respiratory infections. Experience with two multiplex PCR assays." Journal of medical virology 88(1): 45-50.
25. Giacoppo, D., et al. (2015). "Treatment strategies for coronary in-stent restenosis: systematic review and hierarchical Bayesian network meta-analysis of 24 randomised trials and 4880 patients." Bmj 351.
26. Goyal, S., et al. (2017). "The acceptability and validity of self‐collected nasal swabs for detection of influenza virus infection among older adults in Thailand." Influenza and other respiratory viruses 11(5): 412-417.
27. Greenberg, S. B. (2011). Update on rhinovirus and coronavirus infections. Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine, © Thieme Medical Publishers.
28. Gupta, E., et al. (2015). "Correlation between two chemiluminescence based assays for quantification of hepatitis B surface antigen in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection." Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology 33(1): 96-100.
29. Hall, C. B., et al. (2013). Clinical and epidemiologic features of respiratory syncytial virus. Challenges and opportunities for respiratory syncytial virus vaccines, Springer: 39-57.
30. Hause, B. M., et al. (2014). "Characterization of a novel influenza virus in cattle and Swine: proposal for a new genus in the Orthomyxoviridae family." MBio 5(2): 10.1128/mbio. 00031-00014.
31. Hayden, R. T., et al. (2020). Diagnostic microbiology of the immunocompromised host, John Wiley & Sons.
32. Hazelton, B., et al. (2015). "Detection of influenza A and B with the Alere™ i influenza A & B: a novel isothermal nucleic acid amplification assay." Influenza and other respiratory viruses 9(3): 151-154.
33. He, Q., et al. (2014). "Detection of HIV-1 p24 antigen using streptavidin–biotin and gold nanoparticles based immunoassay by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry." Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 29(8): 1477-1482.
34. He, R., et al. (2025). "Integrating multiplex PCR in fever clinics for acute respiratory pathogen-specific diagnosis." Clinica Chimica Acta 572: 120245.
35. Hematian, A., et al. (2016). "Traditional and modern cell culture in virus diagnosis." Osong public health and research perspectives 7(2): 77-82.
36. Holter, J. C., et al. (2015). "Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia and diagnostic yields of microbiological methods: a 3-year prospective study in Norway." BMC infectious diseases 15: 1-11.
37. Irving, S. A., et al. (2012). "Comparison of nasal and nasopharyngeal swabs for influenza detection in adults." Clinical medicine & research 10(4): 215-218.
38. Isakov, O., et al. (2015). "Deep sequencing analysis of viral infection and evolution allows rapid and detailed characterization of viral mutant spectrum." Bioinformatics 31(13): 2141-2150.
39. Jacobs, S. E., et al. (2013). "Human rhinoviruses." Clinical microbiology reviews 26(1): 135-162.
40. James, S. L., et al. (2020). "The global burden of falls: global, regional and national estimates of morbidity and mortality from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017." Injury prevention 26(Suppl 2): i3-i11.
41. Jin, C., et al. (2014). "Comparison of a new gold immunochromatographic assay for the rapid diagnosis of the novel influenza A (H7N9) virus with cell culture and a real‐time reverse‐transcription PCR assay." BioMed Research International 2014(1): 425051.
42. Kalthoff, D., et al. (2013). "High resolution melting analysis: rapid and precise characterisation of recombinant influenza A genomes." Virology journal 10: 1-5.
43. Kennedy, J. L., et al. (2012). "Pathogenesis of rhinovirus infection." Current opinion in virology 2(3): 287-293.
44. Killingley, B. and J. Nguyen‐Van‐Tam (2013). "Routes of influenza transmission." Influenza and other respiratory viruses 7: 42-51.
45. Kim, Y.-J., et al. (2014). "Respiratory syncytial virus in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: factors determining progression to lower respiratory tract disease." The Journal of infectious diseases 209(8): 1195-1204.
46. Kurai, D., et al. (2013). "Virus-induced exacerbations in asthma and COPD." Frontiers in microbiology 4: 293.
47. Lafond, K. E., et al. (2016). "Global role and burden of influenza in pediatric respiratory hospitalizations, 1982–2012: a systematic analysis." PLoS medicine 13(3): e1001977.
48. Larios, O. E., et al. (2011). "Self-collected mid-turbinate swabs for the detection of respiratory viruses in adults with acute respiratory illnesses." PLoS One 6(6): e21335.
49. Leung, N. H. (2021). "Transmissibility and transmission of respiratory viruses." Nature Reviews Microbiology 19(8): 528-545.
50. Leung, P., et al. (2014). "A bioinformatics pipeline for the analyses of viral escape dynamics and host immune responses during an infection." BioMed Research International 2014(1): 264519.
51. Lévêque, N., et al. (2014). "Virological diagnosis of central nervous system infections by use of PCR coupled with mass spectrometry analysis of cerebrospinal fluid samples." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(1): 212-217.
52. Liu, D. X., et al. (2021). "Human coronavirus-229E,-OC43,-NL63, and-HKU1 (Coronaviridae)." Encyclopedia of virology: 428.
53. Liu, J., et al. (2014). "Development of reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid detection of novel avian influenza A (H7N9) virus." BMC microbiology 14: 1-6.
54. Loria, C., et al. (2015). "Human rhinovirus C infections in pediatric hematology and oncology patients." Pediatric transplantation 19(1): 94-100.
55. Lowe, C. F., et al. (2016). "Implementation of next-generation sequencing for hepatitis B virus resistance testing and genotyping in a clinical microbiology laboratory." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 54(1): 127-133.
56. Mahony, J. B. (2010). "Nucleic acid amplification-based diagnosis of respiratory virus infections." Expert review of anti-infective therapy 8(11): 1273-1292.
57. McCarty, T., et al. (2023). "Test Performance and Potential Clinical Utility of the GenMark Dx ePlex Blood Culture Identification Gram-Negative Panel." Microbiology Spectrum 11(1): e04092-04022.
58. Meissner, H. C. (2016). "Viral bronchiolitis in children." New England Journal of Medicine 374(1): 62-72.
59. Mercier-Delarue, S., et al. (2014). "Higher specificity of nucleic acid sequence-based amplification isothermal technology than of real-time PCR for quantification of HIV-1 RNA on dried blood spots." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(1): 52-56.
60. Milano, F., et al. (2010). "Human rhinovirus and coronavirus detection among allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation recipients." Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology 115(10): 2088-2094.
61. Mori, Y., et al. (2013). "Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): recent progress in research and development." Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy 19(3): 404-411.
62. Nakauchi, M., et al. (2014). "Development of a reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the rapid diagnosis of avian influenza A (H7N9) virus infection." Journal of virological methods 204: 101-104.
63. Ngaosuwankul, N., et al. (2010). "Influenza A viral loads in respiratory samples collected from patients infected with pandemic H1N1, seasonal H1N1 and H3N2 viruses." Virology journal 7: 1-7.
64. Nie, S., et al. (2014). "Evaluation of Alere i Influenza A&B for rapid detection of influenza viruses A and B." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(9): 3339-3344.
65. Ortiz de la Tabla, V., et al. (2010). "Comparison of combined nose-throat swabs with nasopharyngeal aspirates for detection of pandemic influenza A/H1N1 2009 virus by real-time reverse transcriptase PCR." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 48(10): 3492-3495.
66. Paules, C. I., et al. (2017). "The pathway to a universal influenza vaccine." Immunity 47(4): 599-603.
67. Pavia, A. T. (2011). "Viral infections of the lower respiratory tract: old viruses, new viruses, and the role of diagnosis." Clinical infectious diseases 52(suppl_4): S284-S289.
68. Peeling, R. W., et al. (2022). "Diagnostics for COVID-19: moving from pandemic response to control." The lancet 399(10326): 757-768.
69. Peteranderl, C., et al. (2016). Human influenza virus infections. Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine, Thieme Medical Publishers.
70. Pillet, S., et al. (2013). "Comparative evaluation of six commercialized multiplex PCR kits for the diagnosis of respiratory infections." PLoS One 8(8): e72174.
71. Pyrc, K., et al. (2011). "Development of loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for detection of human coronavirus-NL63." Journal of virological methods 175(1): 133-136.
72. Quan, P.-L., et al. (2008). "Rapid sequence-based diagnosis of viral infection." Antiviral research 79(1): 1-5.
73. Rothberg, J. M., et al. (2011). "An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing." Nature 475(7356): 348-352.
74. Sauer, S. and M. Kliem (2010). "Mass spectrometry tools for the classification and identification of bacteria." Nature Reviews Microbiology 8(1): 74-82.
75. Schibler, M., et al. (2012). "Critical analysis of rhinovirus RNA load quantification by real-time reverse transcription-PCR." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 50(9): 2868-2872.
76. Shi, K., et al. (2024). "Development of a triplex crystal digital RT-PCR for the detection of PHEV, PRV, and CSFV." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 11: 1462880.
77. Shirato, K., et al. (2018). "Development of fluorescent reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) using quenching probes for the detection of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus." Journal of virological methods 258: 41-48.
78. Shirato, K., et al. (2014). "Detection of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus using reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP)." Virology journal 11: 1-11.
79. Shors, T. (2009). Virus: estudio molecular con orientación clínica, Ed. Médica Panamericana.
80. Song, Q., et al. (2014). "Identification of human metapneumovirus genotypes A and B from clinical specimens by reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification." Journal of virological methods 196: 133-138.
81. Szewczuk, E., et al. (2010). "Rapid semi-automated quantitative multiplex tandem PCR (MT-PCR) assays for the differential diagnosis of influenza-like illness." BMC infectious diseases 10: 1-12.
82. Tang, Y.-W., et al. (2020). "Laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19: current issues and challenges." Journal of Clinical Microbiology 58(6): 10.1128/jcm. 00512-00520.
83. Tong, S. Y., et al. (2011). "Rapid detection of the H275Y oseltamivir resistance mutation in influenza A/H1N1 2009 by single base pair RT-PCR and high-resolution melting." PLoS One 6(6): e21446.
84. Tregoning, J. S. and J. r. Schwarze (2010). "Respiratory viral infections in infants: causes, clinical symptoms, virology, and immunology." Clinical microbiology reviews 23(1): 74-98.
85. van Doorn, H. R. and H. Yu (2020). Viral respiratory infections. Hunter's tropical medicine and emerging infectious diseases, Elsevier: 284-288.
86. Varillas, D., et al. (2011). "A new method for detection of pandemic influenza virus using High Resolution Melting analysis of the neuraminidase gene." Journal of virological methods 171(1): 284-286.
87. Vliora, C., et al. (2019). "A prospective study on the epidemiology and clinical significance of viral respiratory infections among pediatric oncology patients." Pediatric Hematology and Oncology 36(3): 173-186.
88. Yea, C., et al. (2011). "Early detection of influenza A (H5) viruses with affinity for the human sialic acid receptor by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry based mutation detection." Journal of virological methods 172(1-2): 72-77.
89. Zhang, Q., et al. (2017). "Comparative genomic analysis of two emergent human adenovirus type 14 respiratory pathogen isolates in China reveals similar yet divergent genomes." Emerging microbes & infections 6(1): 1-12.
90. Zhang, S., et al. (2020). "Cost of respiratory syncytial virus-associated acute lower respiratory infection management in young children at the regional and global level: a systematic review and meta-analysis." The Journal of infectious diseases 222(Supplement_7): S680-S687.
91. Zhao, L., et al. (2019). "A highly sensitive 1-tube nested real-time RT-PCR assay using LNA-modified primers for detection of respiratory syncytial virus." Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 93(2): 101-106.
Article Sidebar
Published
Feb 20, 2024
Article Details
How to Cite
Muhammad Mudassar, Momina Iftikhar, Kiran Khadam, Ali Raza, Faisal Naseer, Saima Gull, Muhammad Akram, & Jawad Ahmad. (2024). CLINICAL OUTCOMES OF VIRAL RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS AMONG IMMUNOSUPPRESSED INDIVIDUALS. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(2), 10148-10159. https://doi.org/10.53555/c5n7q297
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
All articles published in JPTCP are licensed under Copyright Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Author Biographies
Muhammad Mudassar
College of Allied Health Professionals, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Momina Iftikhar
Department of Eastern Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Kiran Khadam
District Headquarter Hospital Chiniot, Pakistan
Ali Raza
Institute of Microbiology, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Faisal Naseer
College of Allied Health Professionals, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Saima Gull
Department of Zoology, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Akram
Department of Eastern Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Jawad Ahmad
College of Allied Health Professionals, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan
How to Cite
Muhammad Mudassar, Momina Iftikhar, Kiran Khadam, Ali Raza, Faisal Naseer, Saima Gull, Muhammad Akram, & Jawad Ahmad. (2024). CLINICAL OUTCOMES OF VIRAL RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS AMONG IMMUNOSUPPRESSED INDIVIDUALS. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(2), 10148-10159. https://doi.org/10.53555/c5n7q297